Learning Theories, Processes and Models

Is learning a process of sequential steps with measurable components, or is it so embedded in a complex web of influences that it is meaningless to study learning in isolation? The answer could be the former, the latter or neither, depending on the particular theory espoused. Numerous theories have been proposed in the last hundred years to explain what happens when a person moves from a state of not knowing or not being able to do something to that of knowing or being able. Some theories are more widely accepted than others. Some continue to be hotly debated. Divergent opinions can also be found when a particular theory is put into practice.

Some of the earlier theories can be broadly categorised as behaviourist and cognitivist. While behaviourists studied the change in behaviour of the learner due to change in the environments, i.e. provide a stimulus and observe the response, cognitivists (including gestaltists and constructivists) focussed on the mental process of the learner. Some cognitivists argued for a holistic ('gestalt') view of learning and there are those who identified stages in the construction of knowledge. More recent developments include humanist, social learning, adult learning and student development theories/models (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Jarvis, 1987; Merriam & Caffarella, 1991). Theories, models and studies relating to the learning process may provide some insight into why certain educational practices are currently promoted in higher education and allow academics to develop a framework for their teaching practices. The table below shows some learning theorists, their main foci and theory-related processes/practices.

Some of the current research into learning in higher education has focussed on the learner's strategies, styles, motives, approaches and orientations, all of which can influence the learning process (Biggs, 1999; Marton, Hounsell & Entwistle, 1997; Ramsden, 1992). As a result of these studies, phenomenographic ways to explain the learning process have been developed (Bowden & Marton, 1998). "Phenomenography looks at the different conceptions ... which people constitute from the world of their experience" (Entwistle, 1997, p. 127) and it attempts to categorise these conceptions.

This edition looks at issues related to the learning process and what they may mean to practitioners in higher education. This is not a comprehensive or in-depth look at learning. References are given whenever possible, and readers are encouraged to obtain further information on the matters.

• Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham: Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.
• Bowden, J. & Marton, F. (1998). The University of Learning. London: Kogan Page.
• Entwistle, N. (1997). Introduction: Phenomenography in Higher Education. Higher Education Research & Development, 16(2), 127-134.
• Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S. & Guido-DiBrito, F. (1998). Student Development in College: Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Jarvis, P. (Ed.). (1987). Twentieth Century Thinkers in Adult Education. London: Routledge.
• Marton, F., Hounsell, D. & Entwistle, N. (Eds.). (1997). The Experience of Learning (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.
• Merriam, S.B. & Caffarella, R.S. (1991). Learning in Adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London: Routledge.